Reflective teaching

Reflective teaching takes many forms in English language teaching. In a recent online article on reflective teaching, Julie Tice suggests that it is "a systematic process of collecting, recording, and analyzing our thoughts and observations as well as those of our students, and then going into making changes."

Another less formal approach, often called teacher research, involves instructors collecting input on their approach to teaching. Classroom research might also involve instructors collecting information, with the focus being more on the classroom environment. The most formal approach, action research, describes specific steps teachers can take to collect data on their approach to instruction, identify problem areas, and where appropriate, make changes.

The steps of action research sometimes include:

1. Plan an action to address a perceived problem or issue.
2. Teach or act.
3. Observe and collect data.
4. Analyze data or reflect and make new plans.

We'll discuss these ideas in more detail throughout this lesson.

Why reflect?

What are the benefits of reflecting on what we do as teachers? Some of the reasons might include...

1. to identify your personal teaching style, and to recognize what you do well and what you can improve on.
2. to evaluate your approach to teaching and determine how well it matches your teaching philosophy.
3. to increase your knowledge about teaching and to refine your skills.
4. to adjust your approach to instruction in order to better meet your students' needs.
5. to continue to grow and evolve as an educator and a professional.

In order to do the above, is important to have a clear understanding of the various approaches to teaching. One should also be familiar with the different techniques that can be used to teach the different skills. It's also important to understand the role that learning strategies play in instruction.

By participating in this course, you've taken one step toward establishing this foundation and identifying your own personal teaching philosophy. Of course, there is a lot more to learn. Throughout your career, you'll find that professional development and growth will involve consistently evaluating yourself as a teacher and your approach to classroom instruction.

In this lesson, we're going to discuss steps (listed below) that you can take to become a more reflective teacher.

HOW CAN I BECOME A MORE REFLECTIVE TEACHER? Study ELT materials and develop a personal teaching philosophy. Collect data formally and informally. Evaluate how closely your teaching style matches your philosophy. Identify problem areas one at a time and develop an action plan for change or growth. Record the actions you've taken to improve. Set professional development goals to continue the process.

Now you are ready to evaluate how you actually put this into practice in the classroom. How do you go about evaluating your performance as a teacher? There are three basic sources that you can use: yourself, your students, and your colleagues.

Self-generated data: videotaping

I was videotaped a few years back teaching a class for an instructional video. I had never seen myself teaching before. While watching the video, I noticed several things that I needed to change. I was surprised, for example, that I favored certain students over others. Also, I always claimed that I spoke in class in an authentic manner. On the video, though, I noticed that the pace was adequate, but I tended to exaggerate my pronunciation.

In my opinion, the best way to observe yourself is to videotape. Bear in mind, though, that students react differently when they are being recorded. You should also make sure that they don't object to being filmed. When students understand that taping is for your professional growth, they usually are accepting. It's best to set up a schedule to tape yourself once a month or so and to compare one effort with the next. The camera can be set up in the back of the room on a tripod and left unattended.

Teaching journals and logs

Using a teaching journal can also be productive. However, some instructors (including myself) find it hard to sit down and write in a journal after "performing in the classroom" for two to three hours. For us, it is better to keep a log of our class and each time to note what went well and what needed improvement.

Julie Tice suggests that instructors come up with a short list of questions and at the end of each class, respond to these. Questions can be about the lesson objectives (what they were, if they were met), specific activities, student performance, and classroom/time management. Responses to the questions can be brief, but will provide an ongoing record of what and how you are doing in the classroom. For more information, see the bibliography at the end of this lesson.

The lesson plan itself

Another form of self-generated data is the lesson plan itself. Keeping a notebook of your lessons is a great habit to get into. The lessons can be referred to for years. They are a good record of your approach to instruction and can be compared to your overall teaching philosophy.

Student feedback

In an earlier lesson, we looked at how learner feedback (in the form of surveys and questionnaires and student-teacher dialogue journals) can be used to identify student needs and shape instruction. To learn more about what students feel is working in class and what their concerns are, an instructor can use these same kinds of surveys, questionnaires, and student-teacher dialogue journals to elicit student input.

Peer feedback

Peer feedback from colleagues is also very useful in helping you to evaluate your effectiveness as a teacher. Having a colleague observe one your classes can provide you with a different perspective. Peer observations should be structured in such a way that information can be easily interpreted from the experience. One way to approach this is for the observer to answer specific questions about the class he or she visits. The questions should not be judgmental. Instead, they should focus specifically on things happening in class. Some examples might include:

1. What percentage of time did the instructor speak and what percentage of time did students speak or produce?
2. How much time did students speak in their native language?
3. How long did each activity take?
4. Did steps in the lesson plan transition from one to the next fluidly?

Another approach would be for the observer to script or describe the entire lesson precisely with an attempt to stay impartial. This information can then be referred to for later discussions.

Source: http://eltmedia.thomsonlearning.com

Roles in the ESL/EFL Classroom

A successful teacher

Andrew Thompson is an instructor in an undergraduate program. He teaches three nights a week and looks forward to every moment he spends with his students.
He prepares carefully, thinking about the individuals in his class. Andrew's classes are always full and students do well and anticipate their class with Mr. Thompson. There is a long waiting list for Andrew's conversation course. What makes Andrew's class so popular? Why are students so successful in his class?
Andrew's supervisor asks these same questions and takes a special interest in his class. She observes regularly and makes the following conclusions:

Andrew is happy to be in class. He loves his students and has a good attitude. He has fun! Andrew listens to the students. He knows them. He knows each of their names and is truly concerned for them and their success. He calls on each student by name during every lesson. Andrew shares his personal experiences with his students and encourages students to do the same. Andrew is well prepared. He has a complete lesson plan that he shares with the students and he puts an agenda on the board every day. Students know what they are doing and where they are going. Everything that Andrew does in the class has a purpose. He makes each lesson meaningful and applicable to students' daily lives. Learners are encouraged to take risks with communication in and out of the classroom Andrew has certain expectations of the students. They understand why he gives them the work he does. Andrew challenges his students and helps them to understand that they are responsible for their own learning, which means that to the extent that they participate and do the work, they will find success. Students in Andrew's class learn that every form of participation will help them learn. The most important thing that students learn (according to Andrew) is how to learn. The most important thing they gain is confidence in themselves to perform. Andrew keeps current with new methodologies and approaches and doesn't restrict himself to one or another. He selects activities that take into consideration the learning objective, students' needs and learning styles, and his own teaching style. He uses a variety of activities in each lesson. Andrew carefully assesses student performance every moment of the class. He's a good observer and recognizes when he has to change direction. He is flexible.

Roles and responsibilities: a teacher checklist
The following checklist outlines the roles and responsibilities of a teacher. Which describe you?

THE SUCCESSFUL INSTRUCTOR I enjoy teaching. I know my students' names and evaluate their needs. My students know me and who I am beyond the classroom. I have objectives for every class and prepare a well-crafted lesson plan. I don't waste my time or my students' time in class with things that are not useful. I challenge my students and they know what I expect from them. I teach my students the value of participating and taking responsibility for their own learning. I teach within a context that is meaningful to the students and can be applied to their own lives. I am always learning new ways to teach and I apply what I learn to the classroom. I observe my students and assess their performance so I can make adjustments to my lesson plan when needed.

The role of the teacher in the classroom

Instructors themselves determine the teacher's role in the classroom. They set the tone and are the initial authority that students look up to.
The instructor's personal goals, attitudes, values, and dedication should be highly visible to students. Learners respond to sincerity with sincerity, integrity with integrity, organization with organization, and responsibility with responsibility. In turn, they respond to negative attributes often with those same negative characteristics.


Source: http://eltmedia.thomsonlearning.com

         

Checklist for Microteaching Lesson Plan
Check off each aspect the lesson planning completes.
Aspect	Me	Peer 1	Peer 2
Can the objectives really be achieved in the time allocated?
Is the stage of writing correctly addressed?
Have I planned to make best use of my resources?
TOTAL

Chapter 5Lesson Summary

People write for a variety reasons. Some of your learners will need to draft texts for academic or business purposes. Others will write in English strictly for personal reasons (for example, to e-mail a friend, write notes to a child's teacher, or complete application forms). Whatever your learners' needs, you should develop activities that mirror what your students need to do outside of the classroom so that they are able to transfer the skills they learn to the real world. The objective (or purpose) for writing should be expressed early in the lesson.

Writing is perhaps the most challenging part of learning a new language. In his article How to be an Effective EFL Writing Teacher, David Martin describes several ways to make writing more "likable" for our students:

Teach students to turn off their personal subconscious editor through freewriting. Teach students that writing is more a mode of learning than a skill (a skill, he says, promotes the feeling of possible success or failure). Give the students enough support and direction so they can accomplish the task. Establish a goal by establishing the purpose and the audience. Have regular writing conferences where students do most of the talking.

In my view, writing can be a fun and enjoyable process for both the instructor and students if it is approached positively and if feedback is constructive and supportive. It is also essential to plan lessons that will enable students to be successful and to write on their own outside of the classroom.

Source: http://eltmedia.thomsonlearning.com

Chapter 4

Feedback and Revision

Students need feedback on their writing. Traditionally, feedback came exclusively from the instructor and was a series of codes to identify grammatical errors. Students would learn the codes and make the necessary changes.

In ESL/EFL, this type of feedback can be almost unmanageable at the lower levels because there are so many errors. Some instructors mark papers in green instead of red so the corrections won't be as intimidating. Nevertheless, if the marks are more abundant than the student writing, it doesn't matter what color the corrections are.

Giving feedback

In the process approach, instructors provide more feedback on the organization of ideas and the ideas themselves, especially in the early stages. Certainly this is an improvement because students first focus on ideas and meaning. However, sometimes the global errors (those that impede understanding because they have a major role in a sentence) are so extensive that the paper is incomprehensible.

I suggest that instructors limit their feedback to global errors, along with grammar points that students have just learned or should know. Of course, there should be a balance between error correction and discussing and helping students to organize ideas effectively.

Delivering feedback to a student on writing issues can be very time consuming for the instructor. Scheduling regular teacher-student conferences is always the most productive way to help students. They can then ask questions and the instructor can better tell when students understand. In his article How to be an Effective ESL Writing Teacher, Martin stresses that the instructor should avoid dominating the conversation but allow students to talk and express themselves.

Peer editing

 

In both the product and process approaches, students can also review and edit each other's work. This allows students to take the role of the instructor. It also provides a different audience for the student writer. At first, peer editing like this is difficult because students are not willing or don't feel qualified to find problems with their classmates' work.

A good remedy for this is to supply students with an editing checklist. Peer editors can then follow the checklist so that they are not overwhelmed with the task. These checklists can refer to mechanical problems or relate to the message of the writing text itself. These same lists can be used for self-correction as well.

In reality, the writing process is cyclical and students can return to revise and edit over and over. There is no rule that states that there can only be one draft and one final product. Campbell (1998) makes a distinction between "revising" and "editing." She describes "editing" as proofreading or correcting errors in spelling, punctuation, grammar and other similar areas. She describes "revising" as adding and deleting paragraphs, changing organizations and adapting text. Both of these are important and should be balanced in instruction.

Source: http://eltmedia.thomsonlearning.com

Chapter 3

Writing Tasks

Freewriting
Before we discuss different tasks, it is important to focus on student and instructor expectations. Some students are afraid to write because they want to produce an error-free text from the beginning. Some are so preoccupied by errors that it may take fifteen minutes to write a single sentence. In the early stages of writing, though, the goal should be to generate ideas. With the process approach especially, students are encouraged to write first (to get ideas down) and edit later.

In his article How to be an Effective EFL Writing Teacher, Martin stresses that students should be taught to turn off their internal "editor." In other words, the first time students write a particular piece, they should not think at all about correctness and accuracy. Instead, they should write at first in a free style and write as much as they can as fast as they can for 10-20 minutes. This is called freewriting. Martin quotes Elbow (1979) who suggests that students should be encouraged to never stop for any reason, not even to think during freewriting. Later, after the freewrite, Martin says that students can edit their work.

Keeping the reader in mind
When we write, we also need to be aware of the reader. For many ESL/EFL students who are accustomed to writing for the teacher, this can be a challenge. They need opportunities to write to other audiences and to read the writing of others.

In his article Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Student Texts, Myles states that "By guiding students toward a conscious awareness of how an audience will interpret their work, learners then learn to write with a 'readerly' sensitivity. Teachers can help students develop this sensitivity by doing activities that are what we might call "real-world." A few examples might include:

• Students write to each other: students can write descriptions of their class or letters etc.
• Students write to other students in other classes. This can be done through the Internet or at the school.
• Students accomplish real-world tasks like writing letters of complaints to landlords, letters to the editor, etc.

The most important thing is that the audience is well defined. 

Writing tasks

responding to a prompt
One of most common writing tasks involves assigning students to write a paragraph, a composition, or an essay based on a prompt. These activities are often more formal. Students who plan to take standardized tests such as the TOEFL or the IELTS (which include a writing component), or those who intend to continue in school will be required to do this type of writing.

group write
This activity gets students to write a collaborative story. The instructor gives a group a picture or a prompt to a story. One student writes one sentence. Then he or she passes the paper to the next student in the group who adds another sentence to the story. This process continues until a story is written.

jigsaw
In this activity, students work in groups. Each group takes one part of a larger article and becomes an "expert" on that part. Each group writes a summary of its part of the article. Then the instructor puts the parts together into one complete summary.

real-world tasks
There are many creative tasks that go beyond formal paragraph writing and can be used to encourage students to write. For example, if the objective of a given class is By the end of class, students will be able to write appropriate directions to a location in the community, students can be asked to write directions to a location they choose. The directions shouldn't include the name of the final location. Students from other groups will read the instructions and guess the location.

Project work can also stimulate writing. Students working in groups can be told that they are members of a hiring committee. They can be asked to write a description of the imaginary company they work for, design a classified advertisement for an open position, and prepare interview questions. Others in the class can act as applicants and design simple cover letters and resumes to use when applying for the job.


Source: http://eltmedia.thomsonlearning.com

Writing Approaches

Writing versus speaking
Of all the skills, writing is the most complex and unique. Like speaking, writing can be an effective tool for communicating. Unlike speaking, though, it typically takes much more time and thought to develop a written text than to express those same ideas verbally.

Writers also don't have the benefit of using facial expressions, tone of voice, or gestures to help them communicate their ideas. As a result, one must often take great care to be as clear as possible when composing a text that another will read.

Writing also has a permanency to it that speaking does not. It's often easy to backtrack and self-correct when we're talking. The same isn't true for writing, though. Our errors are exposed for all to see…and judge.

Process and product
In the minds of many students (and teachers), the belief is that if errors are eliminated, a text will be perfect. Yet an error-free text does not mean that the message is coherent and that communication with the reader will take place. So if merely editing a text is not sufficient, what can instructors do to help their learners become better writers? To answer this question, let's look at two methods often mentioned in relation to writing instruction: the product approach and the process approach.

The product approach focuses on the final text that will be written. This approach assumes that writers know what they are going to write before they start. Students follow prescribed organizational patterns and in some cases, plug their ideas into templates or outlines. The emphasis with the product approach is on the result: generating a final, finished product.

The process approach focuses on how the writer reaches the final product. It assumes that a writer's ideas develop as he or she writes. There is a continuous interaction between "developing knowledge and continuously developing text" (Bereiter and Scardamalia, 1987). Using this approach, the instructor focuses primarily on helping a learner develop and express his or her ideas in a coherent way. Details such as structure or punctuation are usually dealt with in later stages of the writing process.

Both approaches have merit
As with all other approaches in ELT, we should look for a middle ground where both can work together. The reality is that both the product and process approach have merit and can be used to help learners express their ideas in writing.

The following chart shows a possible series of activities for the two approaches. As you'll see, the approaches have similar steps. Which approach a teacher uses will often depend on the kind of text learners are asked to write.

Product	Process
Model: Students analyze a model of good writing.	Awareness: Students become aware of good writing by reading.
Model manipulation: Students are taught parts of the model. They study grammar, vocabulary, linking words and expressions, etc.	Support: Students develop good writing strategies and learn grammar, vocabulary, and context.
Planning: Students write following a prescribed template (for example, students develop an outline based on their ideas).	Idea Generating: Students develop ideas using different brainstorming techniques.
1st Draft: Students write following their plan.	1st Draft: Students write ideas without overemphasis on accuracy. The focus at this stage is on getting the ideas down on paper.
Feedback: Students get feedback from the instructor.	Feedback: Students get feedback from various sources.
Edit: Students correct grammatical errors and "clean-up" writing based on feedback.	Revise: Students reflect on and clarify ideas based on feedback and eventually correct mistakes in grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
Final draft	Final daft

Designing writing activities
Ultimately, all writing activities should include certain elements to ensure student success. We'll discuss each of these points in upcoming chapters in this lesson.

Writing activities should include the following:

a context (The lesson plan will designate this.) a clear purpose (Why write?) a pre-writing task (What preparation do students need to accomplish the task: vocabulary, grammar, writing strategies and skills)? a writing task a feedback stage a revision and editing stage a final draft

Chapter 2

Pre-Writing

In order to express oneself coherently in writing, a person must be able to…

• define what his or her ideas are.
• organize the ideas in the text in an appropriate manner.
• use the correct structures (grammar) to express those ideas.
• select and use the appropriate vocabulary.
• identify and use appropriate style and tone in the text.
• spell and use punctuation appropriately.

As you can see from the list above, writing is a challenging task, even in one's native language, and definitely in another. An instructor should keep this in mind at all times. There are a number of things, however, that teachers can do in the pre-writing phase to prepare students to compose a text in English.

Establish a context and a purpose
As with the other skills, establishing a context and purpose is very important. This context will help students begin to think about how the writing topic relates to their own lives. They hopefully will develop opinions about it and become motivated to write.

Student level should also be taken into consideration. Students at the lowest levels may only be able to write words or very simple sentences. Students at higher levels may be encouraged to write paragraphs, multiple paragraphs, extended narratives, essays, and reports.

Raise learners' awareness of good writing
Instructors can use models of good writing to help students understand what is expected in certain contexts and with certain kinds of texts. The models can be from other student writing (like from a Language Experience process) or from published sources.

The instructor should be aware that students will sometimes feel they are expected to write at the same level as the writing model. Instructors should help students understand that it takes time to write at the level of the model.

Gabrielatos, in his article entitled EFL Writing: Product and Process, lists various activities that can be used to develop learner awareness of different kinds of texts. (The text below has been slightly modified).

Before students draft anything on their own, get them to... analyze texts for good writing. analyze texts for problems. analyze learner texts for merits and short comings. compare two texts for style and register. order jumbled text to create a paragraph. order jumbled paragraph to create text. add additional or missing information into text. divide a text into sections or paragraphs.

Many students also need vocabulary and grammar input and practice in order to develop a clear text. They should be given tools to do this. Again, Gabrielatos, mentions several activities that can be used in the pre-writing phase to prepare learner to write (modified slightly here):

grammar input/revision and exercises vocabulary development ideas and content development organizational guidelines (for example, instruction on what a paragraph is, what it includes, how ideas are organized, etc.)

Students should not be expected to master, for example, writing topic sentences after being exposed to instruction only once. Address different points, one at a time, and be sure to recycle these regularly over the course of the term.

Brainstorming
We've talked about brainstorming in many lessons of this course. During a brainstorming session, students are encouraged to think of all ideas possible for a given situation, topic, problem, etc. During this time, there are no right or wrong answers. This technique is especially good for pre-writing because learners' background knowledge is stimulated. Also, the group may come up with ideas that a learner (on his or her own) may not have thought of.

The following is a list of brainstorming techniques.

1. clustering
2. word associations
3. categorizing
4. developing charts and graphs
5. surveying or conducting polls

If an instructor's goal is to have students write about healthy lifestyles, for example, first he or she might ask students questions about health in general to establish the context. Then together, the class might brainstorm ideas about which kinds of things are healthy and which aren't. These ideas could be categorized in a chart like the one below.

Healthy Practices	Unhealthy Practices
exercise	smoking
maintaining a good diet	drinking to excess
drinking plenty of water	easting fast food
visiting the doctor regularly	sleeping 12 hours or more every night
driving with a seatbelt	skydiving
taking vitamins	driving too fast
getting 6-8 hours of sleep a night

Learners can then use this information to get started when it is time to begin writing.